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THE  ARAWACK  LANGUAGE  OF  GUIANA 


IN  ITS 


Linguistic  and   Ethnological   Relations. 


By   D.    Q.   ]3RINTON,   M.   D. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

McCALLA  &  STAVELY,  PRINTEKS. 

237-fl  Dock  Street. 

1871. 


•  Ct'j'-'t        it.' 


THE  ARAWACK  LANGUAGE  OF  GUIANA 

IN   ITS 

LINGUISTIC  AND  ETHNOLOGICAL  RELATIONS. 
BY  D.  G.  BRINTON,  M.  D. 


The  Arawacks  are  a  tribe  of  Indians  who  at  present  dwell  in  British  and  Dutch  Guiana,  between  the  Corentyn 
and  Pomeroon  rivers.  They  call  themselves  simply  lukkunu,  men,  and  only  their  neighbors  apply  to  them  the  con- 
temptuous name  aruae  (corrujited  by  Europeans  into  Aroaquis,  Arawaaks,  Aroacos,  Arawacks,  etc.),  meal-eaters, 
from  their  peaceful  habit  of  gaining  an  important  article  of  diet  from  the  amylaceous  pith  of  the  Mauritia  flexuom 
palm,  and  the  edible  root  of  the  cassava  plant. 

They  number  only  about  two  thousand  souls,  and  may  seem  to  claim  no  more  attention  at  the  hands  of  the 
ethnologist  than  any  other  obscure  Indian  tribe.  But  if  it  can  be  shown  that  in  former  centuries  they  occupied  the 
whole  of  the  West  Indian  archipelago  to  within  a  few  miles  of  the  shore  of  the  northern  continent,  then  on  the  question 
whether  their  aflSUations  are  with  the  tribes  of  the  northern  or  southern  mainland,  depends  our  opinion  of  the  course 
of  migration  of  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  the  western  world.  And  if  this  is  the  tribe  whose  charming  simplicity 
Columbus  and  Peter  Martyr  described  in  such  poetic  language,  then  the  historian  will  acknowledge  a  desire  to 
acquaint  himself  more  closely  with  its  past  and  its  pi-esent.  It  is  my  intention  to  show  that  such  was  their  former 
geographical  position. 

While  in  general  features  there  is  nothing  to  distinguish  them  from  the  red  race  elsewhere,  they  have  strong 
national  traits.  Physically  they  are  rather  undersized,  averaging  not  over  five  feet  four  inches  in  height,  but  strong- 
limbed,  agile,  and  symmetrical.  Their  foreheads  are  low,  their  noses  more  allied  to  the  Aryan  types  than  usual  with 
their  race,  and  their  skulls  of  that  form  defined  by  craniologists  as  orthognathic  brachycephalic. 

From  the  earliest  times  they  have  borne  an  excellent  character.  Hospitable,  peace-loving,  quick  to  accept  the 
humbler  arts  of  civilization  and  the  simpler  precepts  of  Christianity,  they  have  ever  offered  a  strong  contrast  to  their 
neighbors,  the  cruel  and  warlike  Caribs.  They  are  not  at  all  prone  to  steal,  lie,  or  drink,  and  their  worst  faults  are 
an  addiction  to  blood-revenge,  and  a  superstitious  veneration  for  their  priests. 

They  are  divided  into  a  number  of  families,  over  fifty  in  all,  the  genealogies  of  which  are  carefully  kept  in  the 
female  line,  and  the  members  of  any  one  of  which  are  forbidden  to  intermarry.  In  this  singular  institution  they 
resemble  many  other  native  tribes. 

LANGUAGE. 

The  earliest  specimen  of  their  language  under  its  present  name  is  given  by  Johannes  de  Laet  in  his  No-ciis  Orbis, 
seu  Deacriptio  India  Occidentalis  (Liigd.  Bat.  1633).  It  was  obtained  in  1598.  In  1738  the  Moravian  brethren 
founded  several  missionary  stations  in  the  country,  but  owing  to  various  misfortunes,  the  last  of  their  posts  was  given 
up  in  1808.     To  them  we  owe  the  only  valuable  monuments  of  the  language  in  existence. 

Their  first  instructor  was  a  mulatto  boy,  who  assisted  them  in  translating  into  the  Arawack  a  life  of  Christ.  I 
cannot  learn  that  this  is  extant.  Between  1748  and  1755  one  of  the  missionaries,  Tlieophilus  Schumann,  composed  a 
dictionaiy,  DeuUeh- Arawakiscliea  Wm'lerhunh,  and  a  grammar,  Deutsch-Arawakuehe  SprarMehre,  which  have  i-emained 


44284f» 


c/«        ^    r   €    < 


';.''*•.''; 


:;;  the  AEAWACK  language  of  GUIANA 

in  manuscript  in  the  libraiy  of  the  Moravian  community  at  Paramaribo.  Scliumann  died  in  1760,  and  as  he  was  the 
first  to  compose  such  works,  tlie  manuscript  dictionary  in  the  possession  of  Bishop  WuUschliigel,  erroneously  refen-ed 
by  tlie  late  Professor  von  Martins  to  the  first  decade  of  the  last  century,  is  no  doubt  a  copy  of  Schumann's. 

In  1807  another  missionary,  C.  Quandt,  published  a  NachricM  von  Surinam,  the  appendix  to  which  contains  the 
best  published  grammatical  notice  of  the  tongue.     The  author  resided  in  Surinam  from  1709  to  1780. 

Unquestionably,  however,  the  most  complete  and  accurate  information  in  existence  concerning  both  the  verbal 
wealth  and  grammatical  stnicture  of  the  language,  is  contained  in  the  manuscripts  of  the  Rev.  Theodore  Bchultz,  now 
in  the  library  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society.  Mr.  Shultz  was  a  Moravian  missionary,  who  was  stationed 
among  the  Arawacks  from  1790  to  1802,  or  thereabout.  The  manuscripts  referred  to  are  a  dictionary  and  a  grammar. 
The  former  is  a  quarto  volume  of  622  pages.  The  first  535  pages  comprise  an  Arawack-German  lexicon,  the 
remainder  is  an  appendix  containing  the  names  of  ti-ees,  stars,  birds,  insects,  grasses,  minerals,  places,  and  tribes. 
The  grammar,  Orammattikaluche  Siitze  von  der  Aruwakkuchen  Sprache,  is  a  12mo  volume  of  173  pages,  left  in  an 
unfinished  condition.  Besides  these  he  left  at  his  death  a  translation  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  which  was  pub- 
lished in  IS.'iO  by  the  American  Bible  Society  under  the  title  Act  ApoUelnu.  It  is  from  these  hitherto  unused  sources 
that  I  design  to  illusti-ate  the  character  of  the  language,  and  study  its  former  extension.  ' 

PHONETICS. 

The  Arawack  is  described  as  "the  softest  of  all  the  Indian  tongues."  ^  It  is  rich  in  vowels,  and  free  from 
gutturals.  The  enunciation  is  distinct  and  melodious.  As  it  has  been  reduced  to  writing  by  Germans,  the  German 
value  must  be  given  to  the  letters  employed,  a  fact  which  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  in  comparing  it  with  the 
neighboring  tongues,  nearly  all  of  which  are  written  with  the  Spanish  orthography. 

The  Arawack  alphabet  has  twenty  letters  :  a,  b,  d,  e,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  1,  m,  n,  o,  p,  q,  r,  s,  t,  u,  w. 

Besides  these,  they  have  a  semi- vowel  written  ,  the  sound  of  which  in  words  of  the  masculine  gender  approaches 
1,  in  those  of  the  neuter  gender  r.  The  o  and  u,  and  the  t  and  d,  are  also  frequently  blended.  The  w  has  not  the 
Gei-man  but  the  soft  English  sound,  as  in  we.  The  German  dipthongs  se,  ce,  eu,  ei,  u,  are  employed.  The  accents 
are  the  long  ",  the  acute  ',  and  that  indicating  the  emphasis  '.  The  latter  is  usually  placed  near  the  commencement 
of  the  word,  and  must  be  carefully  observed. 

NOUNS. 

Like  most  Indians,  the  Arawack  rarely  uses  a  noun  in  the  abstract.  An  object  in  his  mind  is  always  connected 
with  some  person  or  thing,  and  this  connection  is  signified  by  an  aflix,  a  suffix,  or  some  change  in  the  original  form 
of  the  word.  To  this  inile  there  are  some  exceptions,  as  ba7iu  a  house,  siba  a  stone,  hidru  a  woman.  Ddddikdn  hiaru, 
I  see  a  woman.  Such  nouns  are  usually  roots.  Those  derived  from  verbal  roots  are  still  more  rarely  employed  inde- 
pendently. 

Numbers.  The  plural  has  no  regular  teiTnination.  Often  the  same  form  serves  for  both  luimbers,  as  is  the  ca.se 
in  many  English  words.  Thus,  itime  fish  and  fishes,  sibd  stone  and  stones,  kdnsiti  a  lover  and  lovers.  The  most 
common  plural  endings  are  ati,  uti,  and  anu,  connected  to  the  root  by  a  euphonic  letter  ;  as  njti  mother,  vjunvti 
mothers,  itii  father,  itiinaii  fathers,  kansissia  a  loved  one,  kansissiannu  loved  ones. 

Of  a  dual  there  is  no  trace,  nor  does  there  seem  to  be  of  what  is  called  the  American  plural  (exclusive  or  in- 
clusive of  those  present).     But  there  is  a  peculiar  plural  form  with  a  singular  signification  in  the  language,  which  is 

1  since  readliiK  this  article  before  the  Society,  Prof,  S.  S.  HaUleman  has  shown  me  a  copy  of  a  work  with  the  title  :  "  Die  Geschichte  cun  der  Marterwoche, 
A^/eratehung  und  Ifimmeyahrtitnsers /lerrnmul  J/eitaiutee  JeHii  ChriHti,  Uehernetzt  in  die  Aruwackiache  Sprache  wid  erklarend  uiiiechrieben.  Phihiilelphid  :  Ged- 
ruekl  lien  Curl  List,  1799,"  8vo.  pages  213,  then  one  blank  leaf,  then  40  pages  of  "  Anmerkungen."  There  Is  also  a  second  title.  In  Arawack,  and  neither  title 
page  Is  included  In  the  pagination.  The  Arawack  title  begins:  "  Wadaijahun  w'uueaada-goanti,  Wappmitida-tfonnti  btuidia  Jeawt  Chriatxta,"  etc.  The  remarks 
at  the  end  are  chlerty  grammatical  and  critical,  and  contain  many  valuable  hints  to  the  student  of  the  language.  I  have  no  doubt  this  book  Is  the  Life  of 
Christ  mentioned  In  the  tCKt.  The  nameof  the  translator  creditor  is  nowhere  mentioned,  but  I  have  no  doubt  Mr.  Schultz  wrote  the  "  Anmerkungen,"  and 
read  the  proof,  as  not  only  are  his  grammatical  signs  and  orthography  adopted  throughout,  but  also  we  know  from  other  sources  that  he  was  In  Philadelphia 
at  that  time. 

2  Brett,  ne  Indirin  Triheii  ,,/ nuiimc,  p.  li;  (Lonilon,  ISIlS). 


IN   ITS   LINGUISTIC   AND    ETHNOLOGICAL    RELATIONS.  3 

worthy  of  note.  An  example  will  illustrate  it ;  iiti  is  father,  plural  ittinati ;  loallinati  is  our  father,  not  our  fathers, 
as  the  form  would  seem  to  signify.  In  other  words,  singular  nouns  used  with  plural  pronouns,  or  construed  with 
several  other  nouns,  take  a  plural  form.     Petrus  Johannes  mutii  ujilnatu,  the  mother  of  Peter  and  John. 

Gekdeus.  a  peculiarity,  which  the  Arawack  shares  with  the  Iroquois  ^  and  other  aboriginal  languages  of  the 
Western  continent,  is  that  it  only  has  two  genders,  and  these  not  the  masculine  and  feminine,  as  in  Fi-onch,  but  the 
masculine  and  neuter.  Man  or  nothing  was  the  motto  of  these  barbarians.  Regarded  as  an  index  of  their  mental 
and  social  condition,  this  is  an  ominous  fact.  It  hints  how  utterly  destitute  they  are  of  those  high,  chivalric  feelings, 
which  with  us  centre  around  woman. 

The  termination  of  the  masculine  is  i,  of  the  neuter  m,  and,  as  I  have  already  observed,  a  permutation  of  the 
.semi-vowels  I  and  r  takes  place,  the  letter  becoming  I  in  the  masculine,  r  in  the  neuter.  A  slight  diBerence  in  many 
words  is  noticeable  when  pronounced  by  women  or  by  men.  The  former  would  say  herelin,  to  marry ;  the  latter 
kerejun.  The  gender  also  appears  by  more  than  one  of  these  changes  :  ipillin,  great,  strong,  masculine  ;  ipirrun, 
feminine  and  neuter. 

There  is  no  article,  either  definite  or  indefinite,  and  no  declension  of  nouns. 

PRONOUNS. 

The  demonstrative  and  possessive  personal  pronouns  are  alike  in  form,  and,  as  in  other  American  languages,  are 
in*;imately  incorporated  with  the  words  with  which  they  are  construed.  A  single  letter  is  the  root  of  each  :  d  I,  mine, 
b  thou,  thine,  I  he,  his,  t  she,  her,  it,  its,  w  we,  our,  h  you,  your,  n  they,  their ;  to  these  radical  letters  the  indefinite 
pronoun  Ukkuahu,  somebody,  is  added,  and  by  abbreviation  the  following  forms  are  obtained,  which  are  those  usually 
current : 

dakia,  dai,  I. 

bokkia,  bui,  thou. 

likia,  he. 

turreha,  she,  it. 

wakia,  wai,  we. 

hukia,  hui,  you. 

nakia,  nai,  they. 

Except  the  third  person,  singular,  they  are  of  both  genders.  In  speaking,  the  abbreviated  form  is  used,  except  where 
for  emphasis  the  longer  is  chosen. 

In  composition  they  usually  retain  their  first  vowel,  but  this  is  entirely  a  question  of  euphony.  The  methods  of 
their  employment  with  nouns  will  be  seen  in  the  following  examples  : 

iissiquaJiu,  a  house, 

dassiqua,  my  house, 

biissiqua,  •  thy  house. 

Kissiqua,  bis  house. 

tiissiqua,  her,  its  house, 

w&ssiqua,  our  house. 

hiissiqua,  your  house, 

nfesiqua,  their  house. 

vju,  mother, 

daiju,  my  mother. 

buju,  thy  mother. 

3  Etudes  Phitolor/iquei  sur  qwAquet  Langaca  Sauvat/ee  de  CAmeriqtie,  p.  87  (Montreal,  1866). 


4  THE  ARAWACK  LANGUAGE  OF  GUIANA 

liijii,  bis  mother, 

tiiju,  lier  raother. 

waijuuattu,  our  mother, 

hujuattu,  your  mother, 

naijattu,  their  niotlier. 

waijuiniti,  our  motliers. 

luijunuti,  your  mothers, 

naijunuti,  their  mothers. 

Many  of  these  forms  suffer  elision  in  speaking.  Itli  fixther,  datti  my  fatlier,  wattinalli  our  father,  contracted  to 
waUinti  (tcatti  rarely  used). 

When  thus  construed  with  pronouns,  most  nouns  undergo  some  change  of  form,  usually  by  adding  an  affix  ; 
bdru  an  axe,  ddbarim  my  axe.  Mi  tobacco,  dajuUU  my  tobacco. 

ADJECTIVES. 

The  verb  is  the  primitive  part  of  speech  in  American  tongues.  To  the  aboriginal  man  every  person  and  object 
presents  itself  as  either  doing  or  suffering  somothhig,  every  quality  and  attribute  as  something  -which  is  taking  place 
or  existing.  His  philosophy  is  that  of  tlie  extreme  idealists  or  the  extreme  materialists, -(vho  alike  maintain  that 
nothing  u,  beyond  the  cognizance  of  our.seuses.  Therefore  his  adjectives  are  all  verbal  participles,  indicating  a  state 
of  existence.  Thus  Ustsalu  good,  is  from  iiudn  to  be  good,  and  means  the  condition  of  being  good,  a  good  woman  or 
thing,  iiuati  a  good  man. 

Some  adjectives,  principally  those  from  present  participles,  have  the  masculine  and  neuter  terminations  i  and  u 
in  the  singular,  and  in  the  plural  i  for  both  genders.  Adjectives  from  the  past  participles  end  in  the  singular  in  mla 
or  iisiia,  in  the  plural  in  annn.  When  the  masculine  ends  in  illi,  the  neuter  takes  urru,  as  icadikilli,  wadikurru, 
long. 

Comparison  is  expressed  by  adding  ben  or  ken  or  adin  (a  verb  meaning  to  be  above)  for  the  comparative,  and 
apiidi  for  the  diminutive.  Ubura,  from  the  verb  uburau  to  be  before  in  time,  and  adiki,  from  adikin  to  be  after  in 
time,  are  also  used  for  the  same  purpose.  The  superlative  has  to  be  expressed  by  a  circumlocutiou  ;  as  tumaqua 
aditu  ipirrun  tiirreha,  what  is  great  beyond  all  else  ;  bokkia  iiud  dduria,  thou  art  better  than  I,  where  the  last  word 
is  a  compound  of  dai  uwuria  of,  from,  than.  The  comparative  degree  of  the  adjectives  corresponds  to  the  intensive 
and  frequentative  forms  of  the  verbs;  thus  ipirrun  to  be  strong,  ipirru  strong,  ipirrub'n  and  ipirrubessabun  to  be 
stronger,  ipirrubetu  and  ipirnihesaabulu  stronT;er,  that  which  is  stronger. 

The  numerals  are  wonderfully  simple,  and  well  illustrate  how  the  primitive  man  began  his  arithmetic.  They 
are  : — 

1     abba. 

3     biama,  plural  biamannu. 

3  kabbuhtn,  plural  kubbuhininnu. 

4  bibiti,  plural  bibitinu. 

5  abbatekk4be,  plural  abbatekabbunu. 

6  abbatiman,  plural  abbatimanninu. 

7  biamattiman,  plural  biamattimannlnu. 

8  kabbuhintiman,  plural  kabbuliintimanninu. 

9  bibiciman,  plural  bibititumanninu. 

10    biamantek&bbe,  plural  biamantekAbunu. 

Now  if  we  analyze  these  words,  we  discover  that  abbalekkdbe  five,  is  simply  abba  one,  and  akkabu  hand  ;  that  the 
word  for  six  is  literally  "one  [finger]  of  the  other  [hand],"  for  seven  "two  [fingers]  of  the  other  [hand],"  and  so 


IN   ITS   LINGUISTIC   AND   ETHNOLOGICAL   RELATIONS.  0 

on  to  ten,  which  is  compounded  of  biama  two,  and  akkdbu  hands.  Would  they  count  eleven,  they  say  ahba  kutihibena 
one  [toe]  from  the  feet,  and  for  twenty  the  expression  Is  abba  lukku  one  man,  both  hands  and  feet.  Thus,  in  truth, 
they  have  only  four  numerals,  and  it  is  even  a  question  whether  these  are  primitive,  for  kabhuTiin  seems  a  strength- 
ened form  of  abba,  and  bihiiti  to  bear  the  same  relation  to  biama.  Therefore  we  may  look  back  to  a  time  when  this 
nation  knew  not  how  to  express  any  numbers  beyond  one  and  two. 

Although  these  numbers  do  not  take  peculiar  terminations  when  applied  to  different  objects,  as  in  the  languages 
of  Central  America  and  Mexico,  they  have  a  great  vai-iety  of  forms  to  express  the  relationship  in  which  they  are  used. 
The  ordinals  are  : 

atenennuati,  first. 

ibiamatteti,  .  second. 

wakdbbuhinteti,  -our  third,  etc 

To  the  question.  How  many  at  a  time  ?  the  answer  is :  ' 

likinnekewai,  '•ne  alone, 

biamanuman,  two  at  a  time,  etc. 

If  simply,  How  many  ?  it  is  : 

abbahu,  «ne. 

biamahu,  two. 

If,  For  which  time  ?  it  is  : 

tibiakuja,  for  the  first  time, 

tibiamattetu,  for  the  .second  time. 


and  so  on. 


VERBS. 


The  verbs  are  sometimes  derived  from  nouns,  sometimes  from  participles,  sometimes  from  other  verbs,  and  have 
reflexive,  passive,  frequentative,  and  other  f  jrms.  Thus  from  lana,  the  name  of  a  certain  black  dye,  comes  lannatiln 
to  color  with  this  dye,  alannatunna  to  color  oneself  with  it,  alannattukuUun  to  let  oneself  be  colored  with  it,  alanatlu- 
kuitunnua  to  be  colored  with  it. 

The  infinitive  ends  in  in,  Un,  un,  dn,  nnnua,  en,  and  un.  Those  in  in,  an,  tin,  and  <f»  are  transitive,  in  unnua 
are  passive  and  neater,  the  otherji  ai-e  transitive,  intransitive,  or  neuter. 

The  passive  voice  is  formed  by  the  medium  of  a  verb  of  permission,  tlius : 

amalitiu,  to  make, 

amalitikittin,  to  let  make, 

araalitikittunnua,  to  be  made, 

assimakin,  to  call, 

assimakuttiin,  to  let  call, 

assimakuttunnua,  to  be  called. 

The  personal  pronouns  are  united  to  the  verbs  as  they  are  to  the  nouns.  They  precede  all  verbs  except  those 
whose  infinitives  terminate  in  en,  in,  and  ttn,  to  which  they  are  suffixed  as  a  rule,  but  not  always.  Wlien  they  follow 
the  verb,  the  forms  of  the  pronouns  are  either  de,  bu,  i  he,  n  she,  it,  u,  hu,  je  or  da,  ba,  la,  ta,  loa,  lia,  na.  The  latter 
are  used  chiefly  where  the  negative  prefix  m,  ma  or  maya  is  employed.     Examples  : 

hallikebben,  to  rejoice, 
hallikebbede,  I  rejoice, 

hallikebbebu,  thou  rejoicest. 


THE   ARAWACK   LANGUAGE  OF   GUIANA 


liallikcbbei, 

hallikebbuii, 

liallikebbiju, 

balUkobbchu, 

liallikebbeje, 

maj&uquada, 

majduquaba, 

niajduquala, 

iiiajduquata, 

majduquawa, 

maj&uquaba, 

majduquana. 


niajauquan,  to  remain. 


he  rejoices. 

she  rejoices, 
we  rejoice, 
you  rejoice, 
they  rejoice. 

I  remain, 
tliou  remainest. 
he  remains, 
she  remain^, 
we  remain, 
you  remain, 
they  remain. 


Moods  akd  Texses.  Their  verbs  have  (bur  niootls,  tlie  indicative,  optative,  impeiative,  and  infinitive,  and  five 
tenses,  one  present,  three  preterites,  and  one  future.  Tlie  rules  of  their  foimation  are  simple.  By  changing  the 
termination  of  the  infinitive  into  a,  we  have  the  indicative  present,  into  bi  the  first  preterite,  into  buna  the  second 
preterite,  into  kttba  the  third  preterite,  and  into  j«i  the  future.  The  conjugations  are  six  in  number,  and  many  of 
the  verbs  are  irregular.     The  following  verb  of  the  first  conjugation  illustrates  the  general  rules  for  conjugation  ; 


ayahaddin, 


Present  tense ; 


Indicative  Mood. 


dayahadda, 

bujahadda, 

lujahadda, 

ti^aliadda, 

wayahadda, 

hujahddda, 

nayubadda. 

First  preterite — of  to-day  : 

dayahdddibi, 

bujahdddibi, 

lijahaddibi, 

tujab&ddibi, 

wayahaddibi, 

hujahaddibi, 

nayahaddibi, 

Second  pi'eteritc — of  yesterday  or  the  day  before. 

dayahaddibiina, 

bujahaddibiina, 

lijahiddibuna, 

tujahaddibiina, 

wayahaddibiina, 

bujahaddibiina, 

nayaliaddibiina, 


to  walk. 

I  walk, 
thou  walkest. 
he  walks, 
she  walks, 
we  walk, 
you  walk, 
they  walk. 

I  walked  to-day. 
thou  walked  to-day. 
he  walked  to-day. 
she  walked  to-day. 
we  walked  to-day. 
you  walked  to-day. 
they  walked  to-day. 


I  walked  yesterday  or  the  day  before, 
thou  walked  yesterday  or  the  day  before, 
he  walked  yesterday  or  the  day  before, 
she  walked  yesterday  or  the  day  before, 
we  walked  yesterday  or  the  day  before, 
you  walked  yesterday  or  the  day  before, 
they  walked  yesterday  or  the  day  before. 


IN    ITS   LINGUISTIC   AND   ETHNOLOGICAL   RELATIONS. 


Third  preterite — at  some  intlefinite  past  time  : 
dayahaddakuba, 
bujaliSddakuba, 
lijalidddakuba, 
tujah&ddakuba, 
wayaliiddakuka, 
liujah&ddakuba, 
nayaliSddakuba, 


Future : 


Present : 
First  preterite  : 
Second  preterite 
Tliird  preterite  : 


dayali&ddipa, 

bujahaddipa, 

lijali&ddipa, 

tujah&ddipa, 

wayali^ddipa, 

hujabaddipa, 

nayaliaddipa, 

Optative  Mood. 
dayahaddama  or  dayaliaddinnika, 

dayaliaddinnik&bima. 

dayahaddinbun&nia. 

dayahaddinnikubAma. 

Imperative  Mood. 

bujahaddate  or  bujahaddalte, 
hiijahaddiite  or  Inijabaddalte, 
nayabadd&te, 
wayaliaddali, 


ayahaddinnibi, 
ayahaddinnibiina, 
ayaliaddinnikuba, 
ayaliaddinnipa, 

ayahaddinti. 
ayabaddinnibia. 

The  following  forms  also  belong  to  this  verb  : 

ayahaddinnibiakub&ma, 
ayahaddah&lin, 


Participles. 


Gerund. 


I  walked, 
thou  walked, 
he  walked. 
she  walked, 
we  walked, 
you  walked, 
they  walked. 

I  shall  walk, 
thou  wilt  walk, 
he  will  walk, 
she  will  walk, 
we  shall  walk, 
you  will  walk, 
they  will  walk. 


I  may  walk. 


walk  thou, 
walk  ye. 
let  them  walk, 
let  us  walk. 

to  have  walked  to-day. 
to  have  walked  yesterday, 
to  have  walked, 
to  be  about  to  walk. 


to  may  or  can  walk. 

one  who  walks  there  (infinitive  form). 


As  in  all  polysynthetic  languages,  other  words  and  particles  can  be  incorporated  in  the  verb  to  modify  its 

meaning,  thus : 

dayahadd&ruka,  as  I  was  walking. 

dayahaddakanika,  .  I  walk  a  little. 

dayahaddahittika,  I  walk  willingly. 


C  THE  4RAWACK  LANGUAGE  OF  GUIANA 

In  this  way  sometimes  words  of  formidable  length  are  manufactured,  as  : 

massukussukuttuunuanikaebibu,  you  should  not  have  been  washed  to-day. 

Negation  may  be  expressed  either  by  the  prefix  m  or  ma,  as  mayahaddinikade,  I  do  not  walk  (where  the  prefix 
throws  the  pronoun  to  the  end  of  the  word,  and  gives  it  the  form  appropriate  for  that  position),  or  else  by  the  adverb 
kurru,  not.  But  if  both  these  negatives  are  used,  they  make  an  affirmative,  as  madittinda  kurru  OoU,  I  am  not 
unacquainted  with  God. 

COMPOSITION  OF  WORDS  AND   SENTENCES. 

"In  general,"  remarks  Prof.  Von  Martins,  "this  language  betrays  the  poverty  and  cumbrousness  of  other  South 
American  languages;  yet  in  many  expressions  a  glimpse  is  caught  of  a  far  reaching,  ideal  background."  *  We  see 
it  in  the  composition  and  derivation  of  some  words ;  from  haikan  to  pass  by,  comes  haikahu  death,  the  passing 
away,  and  aiihaku  marriage,  in  which,  as  in  death,  the  girl  is  lost  to  her  parents  ;  from  kassan  to  be  pregnant,  comes 
kassaku  the  firmament,  big  with  all  things  which  arc,  and  kasmlm  beliU,  the  house  of  the  firmament,  the  sky,  the 
day ;  from  iikkii  the  heart,  CQmes  iikkUrahu  the  family,  the  tribe,  those  of  one  blood,  whose  hearts  beat  in  unison,  and 
ukiiahii  a  person,  one  whose  heart  beats  and  who  therefore  lives,  and  also,  singularly  enough,  ukkilrahii  pus,  no  doubt 
from  that  strange  analogy  which  in  so  many  other  aboriginal  languages  and  myths  identified  the  product  of  suppu- 
ration with  the  semen  maseulinum,  the  physiological  germ  of  life. 

The  syntax  of  the  language  is  not  clearly  set  forth  by  any  authorities.  Adjectives  generally,  but  not  always, 
follow  the  words  they  qualify,  and  prepositions  are  usually  placed  after  the  noun,  and  often  at  the  end  of  a  sentence  ; 
thus,  peru  (Spanish  perro)  assimakaka  naha  d,  the  dog  barks  her  at.  To  display  more  fully  the  character  of  the 
tongue,  I  shall  quote  and  analyze  a  verse  from  the  Acl  Apostelnu,  the  11th  verse  of  the  14th  chapter,  which  in  the 
English  Protestant  version  reads  : 

And  when  the  people  saw  what  Paul  had  done,  they  lifted  up  their  voices,  saying  in  the  speech  of  Lycaonia, 
The  gods  are  come  down  to  us  in  the  likeness  of  men. 

In  Arawack  it  is : 

Addikittl  uijuhu  Paulus  anissiiibiru,  kakannakiiku  na  assimaka,ka  hiirkuren  Lycaonia  adidn  uUukku  hiddin  : 
Amallitakoananutti  lukkunu  dia  na  bute  wakkarruhu,  nattukuda  aijumiineria  wibiti  hinna. 

Literally  : 

They — seeing  (addin  to  see,  gerund)  the — people  Paulus  what — ^had  been  done  (anin  to  do,  anissia  to  have 
been  done),  loudly  they  called  altogether  the — Lycaonia  speech  in,  thus.  The — ^gods  (present  participle  of  amalUtin  to 
make  ;  the  same  appellation  which  the  ancient  Greeks  gave  to  poets,  ~i>iriTM  makers,  the  Arawacks  applied  to  the 
divine  powers)  men  like,  us  to  now  (baU  nota  pra3seutis)  are — come — down  from — above — down — here  ourselves 
because — of. 

AFFILIATIONS   OF   THE   ARAWACK. 

The  Arawacks  are  essentially  of  South  American  origin  and  affiliations.  The  earliest  explorers  of  the  mainland 
report  them  as  living  on  the  rivers  of  Guiana,  and  having  settlements  even  south  of  the  Equator.'  De  Laet  in  his 
map  of  Guiana  locates  a  large  tribe  of  "Arowaccas"  three  degrees  south  of  the  line,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Amazon.  Dr.  Spix  during  his  travels  in  Brazil  met  with  fixed  villages  of  them  near  Foiiteboa,  on  the  river  Solimoes 
and  near  Tabatinga  and  Castro  d' Avelaes.^  Tliey  extended  westward  beyond  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  and  we  even 
hear  of  them  in  the  province  of  Santa  Marta,  in  the  mountains  south  of  Lake  Maracaybo.^ 

While  their  language  has  great  verbal  differences  from  the  Tupi  of  Brazil  aud  the  Carib,  it  has  also  many  verbal 

*  BnUi-aye  zar  JSthnograpfiU  und  Sj^rachenkande  Amtrika's  zumal  BrasilUns,  B.  I.,  p.  705  (Leipzig,  1867). 

5  De  Laet,  Nooun  Orbis,  lib.  xvii.,  cap.  vi. 

«  Martins,  Bthnographie  uiid  Sprachenkunde  Amerika^s,  B.  I.,  S.  687. 

'  Antonio  Julian,  La  Perla  de  la  America,  la  Provincia  de  Santa  Marta,  p.  149. 


IN    ITS   LINGUISTIC   AND   ETHNOLOGICAL   RELATIONS.  V 

similarities  witli  both.  "The  Arawack  and  the  Tupi,"  observes  Professor  Von  Martins,  "are  ahke  in  their  syntax, 
in  their  use  of  the  possessive  and  personal  pronouns,  and  in  their  frequent  adverbial  construction  ;"  '  and  iu  a  letter 
written  me  shortly  before  his  death,  he  remarks,  in  speaking  of  the  similarity  of  these  three  tongues  :  "  Ich  bin 
iiberzeugt  dass  diese  [die  Cariben]  eine  Elite  der  Tupis  waren,  welche  erst  spiit  auf  die  Antilleii  gekomraen  sind,  wo 
die  alte  Tupi — Sprache  in  kaum  erkennbaren  Resten  iibrig  war,  als  man  sie  dort  aufzeichnete."  I  take  pleasure  in 
bringing  forward  this  opinion  of  the  great  naturalist,  not  only  because  it  is  not  expressed  so  clearly  in  any  of  his 
published  writings,  but  because  his  authority  on  this  question  is  of  the  greatest  weight,  and  because  it  supports  the 
view  which  I  have  elsewhere  advanced  of  the  migrations  of  the  Arawack  and  Carib  tribes.^  These  "hardly  recog- 
nizable remains  of  the  Tupi  tongue,"  we  shall  see  belonged  also  to  the  ancient  Arawack  at  an  epoch  when  it  was 
less  divergent  than  it  now  is  from  its  primitive  form.  While  these  South  American  affinities  are  obvious,  no  relation- 
ship whatever,  either  verbal  or  syntactical,  exists  between  the  Arawack  and  the  Maya  of  Yucatan,  or  the  Cbahta- 
Mvskoki  of  Florida  and  the  northern  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

As  it  is  thus  rendered  extremely  probable  that  the  Arawack  is  closely  connected  with  the  great  linguistic  families 
of  South  America,  it  becomes  of  prime  importance  to  trace  its  extension  northward,  and  to  determine  if  it  is  in  any 
way  affined  to  the  tongues  spoken  on  the  West  India  Islands,  when  tliese  were  first  discovered. 

The  Arawacks  of  to-day  when  asked  concerning  their  origin  point  to  the  north,  and  claim  at  some  not  very 
remote  time  to  have  lived  at  Kairi,  an  island,  by  which  generic  name  they  mean  Trinidad.  This  tradition  is  in  a 
measure  proved  correct  by  the  narrative  of  Sir  Walter  Baleigh,  who  found  them  living  there  in  1595,'°  and  by  the 
Belgian  explorers  who  in  1598  collected  a  short  vocabulary  of  their  tongue.  This  oldest  monument  of  the  language 
has  sufficient  interest  to  deserve  copying  and  comparing  with  the  modern  dialect.     It  is  as  follows  : 

LATfN.  Arawack,  1598.  Abawack,  1800. 

pater,  pilplii,  itti. 

mater,  saeckee,  uju. 

caput,  wassijehe,  waseye. 

auris,  wadycke,  wadihy. 

oculus,  wackosije,  wakusi. 

,  nasus,  wassyerii,  wasiri. 

OS,  dalerocke,  daliroko. 

dentes,  darii,  dari. 

crura,  dadane,  dadaanah. 

pedes,  dackosye,  dakuty. 

arbor,  hada,  adda. 

arcus,  seraarape,  semaara-haaba. 

sagittse,  symare,  semaara. 

luna,  cattehel,  katsi. 

sol,  adaly,  hadalli. 

The  syllables  wa  our,  and  dn  my,  prefixed  to  the  parts  of  the  human  body,  will  readily  be  recognized .  When  it 
is  remembered  that  the  dialect  of  Trinidad  no  doubt  differed  slightly  from  that  on  the  mainland ;  that  the  modern 
orthography  is  German  and  that  of  De  Laet's  list  is  Dutch  ;  and  that  two  centuries  intervened  between  the  first 
and  second,  it  is  really  a  matter  of  surprise  to  discover  such  a  close  similarity.  Father  and  mother,  the  only  two 
words  which  are  not  identical,  are  doubtless  diflferent  expressions,  relationship  in  this,  as  in  most  native  tongues, 
being  indicated  with  excessive  minuteness. 

The  chain  of  islands  which  extend  from  Trinidad  to  Porto  Rico  were  called,  from  their  inhabitants,  the  Caribby 
islands.     The  Caribs,  however,  made  no  pretence  to  have  occupied  them  for  any  great  length  of  time.     They  dis- 

'  Klhnograpkie,  etc.,  B.  I.,  S.  714. 

»  The  Myths  of  the  New  World  ;  a  Treatise  on  the  Symhulism  and  Myihohjjy  of  the  Red  Race  qf  America,  p.  32  (New  York,  I86«). 
10  The  DiscoverU  of  Guiana,  p  4  (Hackluyt,  Soc,  London,  1842). 


10  THE  ARAWACK  LANGUAGE  OF  GUIANA 

tinctly  remembered  that  a  generation  or  two  back  they  had  reached  them  from  tlie  mainland,  and  had  found  them 
occupied  by  a  peaceful  race,  whom  they  styled  Inert  or  Igneri.  The  males  of  this  race  they  slew  or  drove  into  the 
interior,  but  the  women  tliey  seized  for  their  own  use.  Hence  arose  a  marked  difference  between  the  languages  of 
the  island  Caribs  and  their  women.  The  fragments  of  the  language  of  the  latter  show  clearly  that  they  were  of 
Arawack  lineage,  and  that  the  so-called  Igneri  were  members  of  that  nation.  It  of  course  became  more  or  less 
corrupted  by  the  introduction  of  Carib  words  and  forms,  so  that  in  1674  the  missionary  De  la  Borde  wrote,  that 
"although  there  is  some  difference  between  the  dialects  of  the  men  and  women,  they  readily  understand  each 
other  ;"  "  and  Father  Breton  in  his  Carib  Grammar  (1665)  gives  the  same  foi-ms  for  the  declensions  and  conjugations 
of  both. 

As  the  traces  of  the  "island  Arawack,"  as  the  tongue  of  the  Igneri  may  be  called,  prove  the  extension  of  this 
tribe  over  all  the  Lesser  Antilles,  it  now  remains  to  inquire  whether  they  had  pushed  their  conquests  still  further,  and 
had  possessed  themselves  of  the  Great  Antilles,  tlie  Bahama  islands,  and  any  part  of  the  adjacent  coasts  of  Yucatan 
or  Florida. 

All  ancient  writers  agree  that  on  the  Bahamas  and  Cuba  the  same  speech  prevailed,  except  Gomara,  who  avers 
that  on  the  Bahamas  "great  diversity  of  language  "  was  found. '^  But  as  Gomara  wrote  nearly  half  a  century  after 
these  islands  were  depopulated,  and  has  exposed  himself  to  just  censure  for  carelessness  in  his  statements  regarding 
the  natives,"  his  expression  has  no  weight.  Colvimbus  repeatedly  states  that  all  the  islands  had  one  language  though 
differing,  more  or  less,  in  words.  The  natives  he  took  with  him  from  San  Salvador  understood  the  dialects  in  both 
Cuba  and  Haiti.     One  of  them  on  his  second  voyage  served  him  as  an  interpreter  on  the  southern  shore  of  Cuba.'* 

In  Haiti,  thei«  was  a  tongue  current  all  over  the  Lsland,  called  by  the  Spaniards  la  lengua  universal  and  la 
lengua  cortesana.  This  is  distinctly  said  by  all  the  historians  to  have  been  but  very  slightly  different  from  that  of 
Cuba,  a  more  dialectic  variation  in  accent  being  observed.''  Many  fragments  of  this  tongue  are  preserved  in  the 
narratives  of  the  early  explorers,  and  it  has  been  the  theme  for  some  strange  and  wild  theorizing  among  would-be 
philologists.  Rafinesque  christened  it  the  "  Taino  "  language,  and  discovered  it  to  be  closely  akin  to  the  "  Pelasgic  "  of 
Europe.'^  The  Abbe  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg  will  have  it  allied  to  the  Maya,  the  old  Nor.se  or  Scandinavian,  the  ancient 
Coptic,  and  what  not.  Rafinesque  and  Jegor  von  Sivors'^  have  made  vocabularies  of  it,  but  the  former  in  so  uncritical, 
and  the  latter  in  so  superficial  a  manner,  that  they  are  worse  than  useless. 

Although  it  is  said  there  were  in  Haiti  two  other  tongues  in  the  small  contiguous  i)rovinces  of  Macorix  de  arriba 
and  Macorix  de  abajo,  entirely  dissimilar  from  the  lengua  universal  and  from  each  other,  we  are  justified  in  assuming 
that  the  prevalent  tongue  throughout  the  whole  of  the  Great  Antilles  and  the  Bahamas,  was  that  most  common  in 
Haiti.  I  have,  therefore,  perused  with  care  all  the  early  authorities  who  throw  any  light  upon  the  construction  and 
vocabulary  of  this  language,  and  gathered  from  their  pages  the  scattered  information  they  contain.  The  most  valu- 
able of  these  authorities  are  Peter  Martyr  de  Angleria,  who  speaks  from  conversations  with  natives  brought  to  Spain 
by  Columbus,  on  his  first  voyage,  '*  and  who  was  himself,  a  fine  linguist,  and  Bartolome  de  las  Casas.  The  latter  came  as 
a  missionary  to  Haiti,  a  few  years  after  its  discovery,  was  earnestly  interested  in  the  natives,  and  to  some  extent 
acquainted  with  their  language.  Besides  a  few  printed  works  of  small  importance.  Las  Casas  left  two  large  and 
valuable  works  in  manusciipt,  the  Ilistoria  General  de  las  Jndias  Occidentales,  and  the  Tlistoria  Apologetica  de  las 
Indias  Occideniales.     A  copy  of  these,  each  in   four  large  folio  volumes,  exists  in  the   Library  of  Congress,  where  I 

11  Relation  de  VOritjine,  etc..  defi  Caraibes,  p.  39  (Paris.  1674). 

12  "Havha  mas  policia  entre  ellos  [los  Lucayos.J  1  mucha  diversidad  de  Lengiias."'    Hist,  de  las  Indias,  cap.  41. 

13  Las  Casas,  in  the  Nigtoria  General  de  las  Indias  Occid,  lib-  in,  cap.  27,  criticizes  blni  severely. 

1*  Columbus  savs  of  the  Balianias  and  Cuba;  "  toda  la  lengua  es  una  y  todos  amigos"  (Navarrote,  Viaye*.  Tonio  I,  p,  46.)  The  natives  of  Guanahanl 
conversed  with  those  of  Haiti  "porque  todos  tcnian  una  lengua,"  (»i<',  p.  86.)  In  the  Bay  of  Samanaa  different  dialect  but  the  same  language  was  found  (p,  135). 

m  Gomara  says  the  language  of  Cuba  is  "algodi  versa,"  from  that  of  Espanola.  (Iiist.de  his  Ivdias.  cap,  41,)  Ovledo  says  that  though  the  natives  of  the  two 
inlands  dlfter  In  many  words,  yet  they  readily  understand  each  other.    (Hist,  de  las  Indias.  lib,  xvil,  cap.  4.) 

"  The  American  Nations,  chop,  tip,  (Philadelphia,  1S36.) 

17  Cuba,  die  Perle  der  Antillxn,  p.  72.  (Leipzig,  1851.)  The  vocabulary  contains  33  words,  "axis  dem  Cubanischen,^'  Many  are  incorrect  both  In  spelling  and 
pronunciation. 

''  When  Columbus  returned  Irom  his  first  voyage,  lie  brought  with  him  ten  natives  from  the  Bay  of  Saniana  in  Hayti,  and  afew  from  Ouanahani. 


IN   ITS   LINGUISTIC    AND    ETHNOLOGICAL    RELATIONS.  11 

consulted  them.  They  contain  a  vast  amount  of  information  relating  to  the  aborigines,  especially  the  Historia 
Apologeiica,  though  much  of  the  author's  space  is  occupied  with  frivolous  discussions  and  idle  comparisons. 

In  later  times,  the  scholar  who  has  most  carefully  examined  the  relics  of  this  ancient  tongue,  is  Seiior  Don 
Estev<in  Richardo,  a  native  of  Haiti,  but  who  for  many  years  resided  in  Cuba.  His  views  are  contained  in  the 
preface  to  his  Dt'cctoraano  Provincial  casi-razonado  de  Voces  Cubanas,  (Habana,  2da  ed,  1849).  He  has  found  very 
many  words  of  the  ancient  language  retained  in  the  provincial  Spanish  of  the  island,  but  of  course  in  a  corrupt  form. 
In  the  vocabulary  which  I  have  prepared  for  the  purpose  of  comparison,  I  have  omitted  all  such  corrupted  forms,  and 
nearly  all  names  of  plants  and  animals,  as  it  is  impossible  to  identify  these  with  certainty,  and  in  order  to  obtain 
greater  accuracy,  have  used,  when  possible,  the  first  edition  of  the  authors  quoted,  and  inmost  instances,  given  under 
each  word  a  reference  to  some  original  authority. 

From  the  various  sources  which  I  have  examined,  the  alphabet  of  the  lengua  universal  appears  to  have  been  as 
follows:  a,  b,  d,  e,  (rarely  used  at  the  commencement  of  a  word),  g,  j,  (an  aspirated  guttural  like  the  Catalan  j,  or 
as  Peter  Martyr  says,  like  the  Arabic  ch),  i  (rare),  1  (rare),  m,  n,  o  (rare,)  p,  q,  r,  s,  t,  u,  y.  These  letters,  it  will  be 
remembered,  are  as  in  Spanish. 

The  Spanish  sounds  z,  ce,  ci  (English  th, )  11,  and  v,  were  entirely  unknown  to  the  natives,  and  whei'e  they  appear 
in  indigenous  words,  were  falsely  written  for  1  and  b.  The  Spaniards  also  frequently  distorted  the  native  names  by 
writing  X  for  j,  s,  and  z,  by  giving  j  the  sound  of  the  Latin  y,  and  by  confounding  h,  j,  and  f,  as  the  old  writers  fre- 
quently employ  the  h  to  designate  the  spiritus  asper,  whereas  in  modern  Spanish  it  is  mute." 

Peter  Martyr  found  that  he  could  reduce  all  the  words  of  their  language  to  writing,  by  means  of  the  Latin  letters 
without  diffioilty,  except  in  the  single  instance  of  the  guttural  j.  He,  and  all  others  who  heard  it  spoken,  describe 
it  as  "soft  and  not  less  liquid  than  the  Latin,"  "rich  in  vowels  and  pleasant  to  the  ear,"  an  idiom  "  simple,  sweet, 
and  sonorous.  "2° 

In  the  following  vocabulary  I  have  not  altered  in  the  least  the  Spanish  orthography  of  the  words,  and  so  that  the 
analogy  of  many  of  them  might  at  once  be  preceived,  I  have  inserted  the  corresponding  Arawack  expression,  which, 
it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  is  to  be  pronounced  by  the  German  alphabet. 

Vocabulary  of  the  Ancient  Language  of  the  Great  Antilles. 

Aji,  red  pepper.     Arawack,  achi,  red  pepper. 

Aon,  dog  (Las  Casas,  Hist.  Gen.  lib.  I,  c.  120).     Island  Ar.  dnli,  dog. 

Arcabuco,  a  wood,  a  spot  covered  with  trees  (Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.  de  las  Indias,  lib.  VI,  c,  8).  Ar.  arragkaragTcadin 
the  swaying  to  and  fro  of  trees. 

Areito,  a  song  chanted  alternately  by  the  priests  and  the  people  at  their  feasts.  (Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.  lib.  V,  c.  1.) 
Ar.  aririn  to  name,  rehearse. 

Bagua,  the  sea.     Ar.  bara,  the  sea. 

Bajaraque,  a  large  house  holding  several  hundred  persons.  From  this  comes  Sp.  barraca,  Eng.  barracks.  Ar. 
baju,  a  house. 

Bajari,  title  applied  to  sub-chiefs  ruling  villages,  (Las  Casas,  Hist.  Apol.  oaj).  120).  Probably  "house-ruler," 
from  Ar.  baju,  house. 

Barbacoa,  a  loft  for  drying  maize,  (Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.  lib.  VII,  cap.  1).  From  this  the  English  barbacue.  Ar. 
burrabakoa,  a  place  for  storing  provisions. 

"  See  the  remarks  of  Richardo  in  the  Prologo  to  his  Dlccionario  Provincial. 

20  The  remarlis  of  Peter  Martyr  are ;  "posse  omnium  iiiarum  linguani  nostris  literis  Latinis,  sine  uiio  discrimine,  scribl  compertum  est,"  (D«  fleiiij* 
Oceaniris  tt  Novo  Orbe,  Decades  Tres,  p.  9.)  "  Advertendum  est,  nuliam  Inesse  adspirationem  vocabulis  eorum,  quae  non  habeat  eflectum  literae  consonantis ; 
Immograviusadspiratiouem  proferunt,  quam  nos  f  consonantem.  Profereudumque  est  quicquid  est  adspiratum  eodum  halitu  quo  f,  aed  minima  admoto  ad 
Auperiores  dentes  Inferiore  labello,  ore  aut  aperto  ha,  he  hi,  ho,  hu,  et  concusso  pectore.  Hebraeos  et  Arabicos  eodem  modo  suas  proferre  adspirationes 
vldcs,"  (id.  pp.  285, 286.) 


12  THE  ARAWACK  LANGUAGE  OF  GUIANA 

Batay,  a  ball-ground  ;  bates,  the  ball;  batey,  the  game.  (Las  Casas,  Hist.  Apol.  c.  204).  Ar.  battatan,  to  be 
round,  spherical.*' 

Batea,  a  trough.     (Las  Casas,  Hist.  Apol.  c.  241.) 

Bejique,  a  priest.     Ar.  piaye,  a  priest. 

Bixa,  an  ointment.     (I^as  Casas,  Hist.  Apol.  cap.  241.) 

Cai,  cayo,  or  cayco,  an  island.     Prom  this  the  Sp.  eayo,  Eng.  key,  in  the  "Florida  keys."     Ar.  kairi,  an  island. 

Caiman,  an  alligator,     Ar.  k/iiman,  an  alligator,  lit.  to  be  strong. 

Caona  or  cauni,  gold.     (Pet.  Martyr,  Decad.  p.  26,  Ed.  Colon,  1564).     Ar.  kaijaunan,  to  be  precious,  costly. 

Caracol,  a  conch,  a  univalve  shell.  From  this  the  Sp.  caracal.  (Richardo,  Dice.  Provin.  s.  v).  Probably  from 
Galibi  caracoulis,  trifles,  ornaments.     (See  Martius,  Sprachenkunde,  B.  ii,  p.  332.) 

Caney  or  cansi,  a  house  of  conical  shape. 

Canoa,  a  boat.     From  this  Eng.  eanoe.     Ar.  kannoa,  a  boat. 

Casique,  a  chief.  This  word  was  afterwards  applied  by  Spanish  writers  to  the  native  rulers  throughout  the  New 
World.  Ar.  hassiquan  (from  ussequa,  house),  to  have  or  own  a  house  or  houses  ;  equivalent,  therefore,  to  the  Eng. 
landlord. 

Cimu  or  simu,  the  front,  forehead  ;  a  beginning.  (Pet.  Martyr,  Decad.  p.  302.)  Ar.  erne  or  uime,  the  mouth  of 
a  river,  uimelian,  to  be  new. 

Coaibai,  the  abode  of  the  dead. 

Cohdba,  the  native  name  of  tobacco. 

Conuco,  a  cultivated  field.     (Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.  lib.  vii,  cap.  2.) 

Dulios  or  duohos,  low  seats  (unas  baxas  sillas.  Las  Casas,  Hist.  Gen.  lib.  I,  cap  90.  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.  lib.  V.  cap. 
1 .  Richardo,  sub  voce,  by  a  careless  reading  of  Oviedo  says  it  means  images).    Ar.  dulluhu  or  durruhu,  a  seat,  a  bench. 

Goeiz,  the  spirit  of  the  living  (Pane,  p.  444)  ;  probably  a  corruption  of  Ouayzas.  Ar.  akhxtyalia,  the  spirit  of 
a  living  animal. 

Qua,  a  very  frequent  prefix  :  Peter  Martyr  says,  "  Est  apud  eos  articulus  et  pauca  sunt  regum  praecipue  nominum 
quae  non  incipiant  ab  hoc  articulo  gua."  (Decad.  p.  285.)  Very  many  proper  names  in  Cftba  and  Hayti  still  retain 
it.  The  modern  Cubans  pronounce  it  like  the  English  w  with  the  spiritua  lenis.  It  is  often  written  oa,  ua,  oua,  and 
liua.  It  is  not  an  article,  but  corresponds  to  the  a7i  in  the  Maya,  and  the  gue  in  the  Tupi  of  Brazil,  from  which  latter 
it  is  probably  derived. 22 

Guaca,  a  vault  for  storing  provisions.  , 

Guacabina,  provisions  for  a  journey,  supplies.  '    "'  ' 

Guacamayo,  a  species  of  parrot,  maci-ocercus  tricolor.  .' "   *  - 

Guanara,  a  retired  stop.     (Pane,  p.  444);  a  species' of  dove,  eolunjba  ^naida  (Richardo,  S.  V.) 

Guanin,  an  impure  sort  of  gold.  "     \      ■  *' 

Guaoxeri,  a  term  applied  to  the  lowest  class  of  tiie  inhabitants  (Las  Casas,  Hist.  Apol.  cap.  197.)  A.v  wakaijaru, 
worthless,  dirty,  wakaijatti  lilii,  a  worthless  fellow. 

Guatiao,  friend,  companion  (Richardo).     Ar.    ahati,  companion,  playmate. 

Guayzas,  masks  or  figures  (Las  Casas,  Hist.  Apol.  cap.  61).     Ar.  akkuyaha,  living  beings. 

Ilaba,  a  basket  (Las  Casas,  Hist.  Gen.  lib.  iii,  cap.  21).     Ar.  liabba,  a  basket. 

Haiti,  stony,  rocky,  rough  (Pet.  Martyr,  Decades).    Ar.  ae»si  or  aetti,  a  stone. 

Hamaca,  a  bed,  hammock.     Ar.  liamaha,  a  bed,  hammock. 

Hico,  a  rope,  ropes  (Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.  lib.  v,  cap.  2). 

21  Tliere  was  a  hall-ground  In  every  village.  It  was  "tres  veces  mas  luenga  que  ancha,  cercada  dc  unos  lomlllos  dc  un  palmo  o  dos  de  alto."  The  ball  was 
"  com  o  las  de  vlento  nuestras  mas  no  cuanto  al  salto,  que  era  mayor  que  eeisde  las  de  vlento."  (Las  Casas,  Historia  .4i>oio<)«(ic<z,  caps.  46,  204.)  Perhaps  the 
ball  was  of  India  rubber. 

""Gueou  Gul,  signal  de  vocatlvo,  mas  so  eraprcga<lo  palos  homcms."  Dias  Viccionario  da  Lingua  Titpy  chamada  Lingua  Gcral  do/>  Inditjenas  do  Brazil, ^.(iQ 
(Llpsla,  1838). 


m    ITS    LINGUISTIC   AND    ETHNOLOGICAL   RELATIONS.  13 

Hobin,  gold,  brass,  any  reddish  inetaL     (Navarrete  Viages,  i,  p.  134,  Pet.  Martyr,  Dec.  p.  303).     Ar.  hobin,  red. 

Iluiho,  heigbt.     (Pet.  Martyr,  p.  304).     Ar.  aijumiin,  above,  high  iip. 

Huracan,  a  hurricane.  From  this  Sp.  huraean,  Fr.  ouragan,  German  Orkan,  Eiig.  hurricane.  Tliis  woi'd  is 
given  in  the  Liere  Sacri  des  Qaichis  as  the  nams  of  their  highest  divinity,  but  the  resemblance  may  be  accidental. 
Father  Ximenes,  who  translated  the  Licre  Sacr^,  derives  the  name  from  the  Quiche  hu  rakan,  one  foot.  Father 
Thomas  Goto,  in  his  Cakchiquel  Dictionary,  (MS.  in  the  library  of  the  Am.  Phil.  Soc.)  translates  diablo  by  liurakan, 
but  as  the  equivalent  of  the  Spanish  Uuracan,  he  gives  ratincliet. 

Hyen,  a  poisonous  liquor  expressed  from  the  cassava  root.     (Las  Casas,  Hist.  Apol.  cap.  2). 
•  Itabo,  a  lagoon,  pond.     (Richardo). 

Juanna,  a  serpent.     (Pet.  Martyr,  p.  63).     Xv.joanna,  a  lizard  ;  jawanaria,  a  serpent. 

Maoana,  a  war  club.     (Navarrete,  Viages.  i.  p.  13.5). 

Jlagua,  a  plain.    (Las  Casas,  Breviss.  Relat.  p.  7). 

Maguey,  a  native  drum.     (Pet.  Martyr,  p.  380). 

Maisi,  maize.     From  this  Eng.  maize,  Sp.  main,  Ar.  mariti,  maize. 

Matum,  liberal,  noble.     (Pet.  Martyr,  p.  293). 

Matunheri,  a  title  applied  to  the  highest  chiefs.    (Las  Casas,  Hist.  Apol.  cap.  197), 

Mayani,  of  no  value,     ("nihil!,"  Pet.  Martyr,  p.  9).     Ar.  ma,  no,  not. 

Naborias,  servants.   (Las  Casas,  Hist.  Gen.  lib.  iii,  cap.  33). 

Nacan,  middle,  center.     Ar.  annakan,  center.  ' 

Nagua,  or  enagua,  the  breecli  cloth  made  of  cotton  and  worn  around  the  middle.    Ar,  annaka,  the  middle. 

Nitainos,  the  title  applied  to  the  petty  chiefs,  (regillos  6  guiallos.  Las  Casas,  Hist.  Apol.  cap,  197)  ;  tayno  vir 
bonus,  taynos  nobiles,  says  Pet.  Martyr,  (Decad.  p.  25).  The  latter  truncated  form  of  the  word  was  adopted  by 
Rafinesque  and  others,  as  a  general  name  for  the  people  and  language  of  Hayti.  There  is  not  the  slightest  authority 
for  this,  nor  for  supposing,  with  Von  Martius,  that  the  first  syllable  is  a  pronominal  prefix.  The  derivation  is  undoubt- 
edly Ar.  nuddan  to  look  well,  to  stand  firm,  to  do  anything  well  or  skilfully. 

Nucay  or  nozay,  gold,  used  especially  in  Cuba  and  on  the  Bahamas.  The  words  caona  and  tuob  were  in  vogue  in 
Haiti  (Navarrete,  Viages,  Tom.  1,  pp.  45,  134). 

Operito,  dead,  and 

Opia,  the  spirit  of  the  dead  (Pane,  pp.  443,  444).   Ar.  aparrun  to  kill,  apparahun  dead,  hipparrukiiloa  he  is  dead. 

Quisqueia,  a  native  name  of  Haiti ;  "  vastitas  et  universus  ac  totus.  Uti  Grseci  suum  Panem,"  says  Pet.  Martyr 
(Decad.  p.  279).  "Madre  de  las  tierras,"  Valverde  tran.slates  it  (^Idea  del  valor  de  la  Isla  Espanola,  Introd.  p.  xviii). 
The  orthography  is  evidently  very  false. 

Sabana,  a  plain  covered  with  grass  without  trees  (terrano  llano,  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.  lib.  vi.  cap.  8).  From  this 
the  Bp.  savana,  Eng.  saitannah.  Charlevoix,  on  the  authority  of  Mariana,  says  it  is  an  ancient  Gothic  word 
(Histoire  de  I'Isle  St.  Domingue,  i.  p.  53).     But  it  is  probably  from  the  Ar.  sallaban,  smooth,  level. 

Semi,  the  divinities  worshipped  by  the  natives  ("  Lo  mismo  que  nosotros  Uamamos  Diablo,"  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen. 
lib.  V.  cap.  1.     Not  evil  spirits  only,  but  all  spirits).     Ar.  semeti  sorcerers,  diviners,  priests. 

Siba,  a  stone.     Ar.  siba,  a  stone. 

Starei,  shining,  glowing  (relucens,  Pet.  Martyr,  Decad.  p.  304).     Ai%  tere'n  to  be  hot,  glowing,  tereh'A  heat. 

Tabaco,  the  pipe  used  in  smoking  the  cohoba.  This  word  has  been  applied  in  all  European  languages  to  the 
plant  nicotiana  tabacum  itself. 

Taita,  father  (Richardo).     Ar.  ilta  father,  dailta  or  dalli  my  father. 

TaguSguas,  ornaments  for  the  ears  hammered  from  native  gold  (Las  Casas,  Hist.  Apol.  cap,  199). 
Tuob,  gold,  probably  akin  to  liobin,  q.  v. 

Turey,  heaven.  Idols  were  called  "cosas  de  tor«^"  (Navarrete,  Viages,  Tom.  i.  p.  231).  Probably  akin  to 
ttarei,  q.  v. 


14  THE  ARAWACK  LANGUAGE  OF  GUIANA 

The  following  numerals  are  given  by  Las  Oasas  (Hist.  Apol.  c.ip.  204). 

1  hequeti.     Ar.  hurketai,  tliat  is  one,  from  hurkun  to  be  single  or  alone. 

2  yamosa.     Ar.  Mama,  two. 

3  cauocum.     Ar.  kannikun,  many,  a  large  number,  kannikukade,  he  has  many  things. 

4  yaraoucobre,  evidently  formed  from  yamosa,  as  Ar.  bibiti,  four,  from  biama,  two. 

The  other  numerals  Las  Casas  had  unfortunately  forgotten,  but  he  says  they  counted  by  hands  and  feet,  just  as 
the  Arawacks  do  to  this  day. 

Various  compound  words  and  phrases  are  found  in  difterent  writers,  some  of  whicli  are  readily  explained  from 
the  Arawack.  Thus  tureigua  hnbin,  which  Petet  Martyr  translates  "rex  resplendens  uti  orichalcum,"^'  in  Arawack 
means  '•shining  like  something  red."  Oviedo  says  that  at  marriages  in  Cuba  it  was  customary  for  the  bride  to 
bestow  her  favors  on  every  man  present  of  equal  rank  with  her  husband  before  the  latter's  turn  came.  When  all 
liad  thus  enjoyed  her,  she  ran  through  the  crowd  of  guests  shouting  manieato,  manicato,  "lauding  herself,  meaning 
that  she  was  strong,  and  brave,  and  equal  to  mucli."  ^*  This  is  evidently  the  Ar.  nianikade,  from  indn,  manin,  and 
means  I-nm  unhurt,  I  am  unconqncred.  When  the  natives  of  Haiti  were  angry,  says  Las  Uasas,^^  they  would  not 
strike  each  other,  but  apply  such  harmless  epithets  as  buticaco,  you  are  blue-eyed  (anda  para  zarco  de  los  ojos), 
xeyticaco,  you  are  black-eyed  (anda  para  negro  de  los  ojos),  or  mahite,  you  have  lost  a  tooth,  as  the  case  might  be. 
The  termination  aeo  in'  the  first  two  of  these  expressions  is  clearly  the  Ar.  acou,  or  akusi,  eyes,  and  the  last  men- 
tioned is  not  unlike  the  Ar.  mdrikata,  you  have  no  teeth  (  ma  negative,  ari  tooth).  The  same  writer  gives  for  "I  do 
not  know,"  the  word  ita,  in  Ai".  daitia.^ 

Some  of  the  words  and  phrases  I  have  been  unable  to  identify  in  the  Arawack.  They  are  duiheyniquen,  dives 
fluvius,  maguacochios  vestiti  homines,  both  in  Peter  Martyr,  and  the  following  conversation,  which  he  says  took 
place  between  one  of  the  Haitian  chieftians  and  his  wife. 

She.     Teitoca  teitoca.     Tccheta  cynato  guamechyna.     Guaibbd. 

He.     Cyniito  niachabuca  guamechyna. 

These  words  he  translated  :  teitoca  be  quiet,  ttclieta  much,  cynato  angry,  guamechyna  the  Lord,  guaibba  go, 
maehabuca  what  is  it  to  me.     But  thoy  are  either  very  incorrectly  spelled,  or  are  not  Arawack. 

The  proper  names  of  localities  iu  Cuba,  Hayti  and  the  Bahamas,  furnish  additional  evidence  that  their  original 
Inhabitants  were  Arawacks.  Hayti,  I  have  already  shown  has  now  the  same  meaning  in  Arawack  which  Peter  Martyr 
ascribed  to  it  at  the  discovery.  Cubanacan,  a  province  in  the  interior  of  Cuba,  is  compounded  oikuba  and  annakan, 
in  the  center  f  Baraooa,  the  name  of  province  on  the  coast,  is  from  Ar.  bara  sea,  koan  to  be  there,  "  the  sea  is  there;" 
in  Barajagua  the  bara  again  appears  ;  Guaymaya  is  Ar.  waya  clay,  mara  there  is  none  ;  Marien  is  from  Ar.  maran 
to  be  small  or  poor  ;  Guaniguanico,  a  province  on  the  narrow  western  extremity  of  the  island,  with  the  sea  on  either 
side,  is  probably  Ar.  louini  wuinikoa,  watei-,  water  is  there.  The  names  of  tribes  such  as  Siboneyes,  Guantaneyes, 
owe  their  termination  to  the  island  Arawack,  eyeri  men,  in  the  modern  dialect  hiaeru,  captives,  slaves.  The  Siboneyes 
are  said  by  Las  Casas,  to  have  been  the  original  inhabitants  of  Cuba.'*  The  name  is  evidently  from  Ar.  siba,  rock, 
eyeri  men,  "men  of  the   rocks."     The  rocky  shores  of  Cuba  gave  them   this  apjiellation.     On  the  other  hand  the 

22  />e  lielus  Oceanicis,  p.  303. 

24  Hist,  de  las  Indias,  lib.  xvli.  cap.  1.  Las  Casas  denies  the  story,  and  says  Oviedo  told  It  In  order  to  prejudice  people  against  the  natives  {Hist.  Gen.  de  Ian 
Indias,  Ifb.  ill.  cap.  XKiv).    It  Is,  however,  probably  true. 

2j  Jlintoria  Apologetica,  cap.  19S. 

26  He  compares  the  stgnltlcatlon  of  ita  In  Ilaytian  to  ita  In  Latin,  and  translates  the  former  iia  by  no  ae;  this  Is  plainly  an  error  of  the  transcriber  for  yo 
«  (fliet.  Apologetica,  cap.  241). 

2T  Kuba  in  Arawack  !s  the  sign  of  past  time  and  Is  used  as  a  prefl.x  to  nouns,  as  well  as  a  suffix  to  verbs.  Kubakanaa  ancestors,  those  passed  away,  those 
who  lived  in  past  times. 

28  "  Toda  la  mas  de  la  gente  de  que  estaba  poblaba  aquella  Isla  [Cuba}  era  passada  y  natural  desta  ysla  Espanola,  puesto  que  la  mas  autigua  y  natural  de 
aquella  ysla  era  como  la  de  los  Lucayos  de  quien  ablamos  en  el  prlmero  y  segundo  llbroser  conio  los  seres  que  parecia  no  haber  pecado  nuestro  padre  Adan  en 
ellos,  gente  slmpUcissinia,  bonlssima,  careciente  de  todos  vlclos,  y  beatlssinia.  Kstaerala  natural  y  native  de  aquella  ysla,  y  llamabanse  en  su  lengua,  CI  boll - 
eyes,  la  penultlma  silaba  luenga;  y  los  desta por  Rradoo  por  fuerza  se  apodearon  de  aquella  ysla  y  gente  della,  y  los  tenian  como  sirvientes  suyos."  (Las  Casas 
Hint.  Gen.  de  las  Indias,  MSS.  lib.  ill,  cap.  21).    Elsewhere  (cap.  23)  he  says  this  occurred  "  mayormente  "  after  the  Spaniards  had  settled  in  Haiti. 


IN   ITS    LINGUISTIC   AND   ETHNOLOGICAL   RELATIONS.  15 

natives  of  the  islets  of  the  Bahamas  were  called  lukku  kairi,  abbreviated  to  lukkairi,  and  lucayos,  from  lukku,  man,  kairi 
an  island,  "men  of  the  Islands  ;"  and  the  archipelago  itself  was  called  by  the  first  explorers  "lasislasde  Ids  Lucayos,'" 
"  isole  delle  Lucai."29  -phe  ijrovince  in  the  western  angle  of  Haiti  was  styled  Guacaiariraa,  which  Peter  Martyr  trans- 
lates "  insulae  podex  ;"  dropping  the  article,  caiarima  Is  sufficiently  like  the  Ar.  kuiruiiia,  which  signifies  podex,  Sp. 
culala,  and  is  used  geographically  in  the  same  manner  as  the  latter  word. 

The  word  Maya  frequently  found  in  the  names  of  places  in  Cuba  and  Haiti,  as  Mayaba,  Mayanabo,  Mayajigua, 
Cajimaya,  .laimayabon,  is  doubtless  the  Ar.  negative  tna,  mdn,  mara.  Some  writers  have  thought  it  indicative  of  the 
extension  of  the  Maya  language  of  Yucatan  over  the  Antilles.  Prichard,  Squier,  Waitz,  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Bas 
tian  and  other  ethnologists  have  felt  no  hesitation  in  assigning  a  large  portion  of  Cuba  and  Haiti  to  the  Mayas.  It  is 
true  the  first  explorers  heard  in  Cuba  and  Jamaica,  vague  rumors  of  the  Yucatecan  peninsula,  and  found  wax  and 
other  products  brought  from  there.'"  This  shows  that  there  was  some  communication  between  the  two  races,  but  all 
authorities  agree  that  there  was  but  one  language  over  the  whole  of  Cuba.  The  expressions  which  would  lead  to  a 
different  opinion  are  found  in  Peter  Martyr.  He  relates  that  in  one  place  on  the  southern  shore  of  Cuba,  the  inter- 
preter whom  Columbus  had  with  him,  a  native  of  San  Salvador,  was  at  fault.  But  the  account  of  the  occurrence 
given  by  Las  Casas,  indicates  that  the  native  with  whom  the  interpreter  tried  to  converse  simply  refused  to  talk  at  all." 
Again,  in  Martyr's  account  of  Grijalva's  voyage  to  Yucatan  in  1517,  he  relates  that  this  captain  took  with  him  a 
native  to  serve  as  an  interpreter  ;  and  to  explain  how  this  could  be,  he  adds  that  this  interpreter  was  one  of  the  Cuban 
natives  "quorum  idionia,  si  non  idem,  cousanguineum  tamen,"  to  that  of  Yucatan.  This  is  a  mere  fabrication,  as 
the  chaplain  of  Grijalva  on  this  expedition  states  explicitly  in  the  narrative  of  it  which  he  wrote,  that  the  interpreter 
was  a  native  of  Yucatan,  who  had  been  captured  a  year  before. '^ 

Not  only  is  there  a  very  great  dissimilarity  in  sound,  words,  and  structure,  between  the  Arawack  and  Maya,  but 
the  nations  were  also  far  asunder  in  culture.  The  Mayas  were  the  most  civilized  on  the  continent,  while  the  Arawacks 
possessed  little  besides  the  most  primitive  arts,  and  precisely  that  tribe  which  lived  on  the  extremity  of  Cuba  nearest 
Yucatan,  the  Guanataneyes,  were  the  most  barbarous  on  the  island.'" 

The  natives  of  the  greater  Antilles  and  Bahamas  differed  little  in  culture.  They  cultivated  maize,  manioc,  yams, 
jjotatoes,  corn,  and  cotton.  The  latter  they  wove  into  what  scanty  apparel  they  required.  Their  arms  were  bows 
witli  reed  aiTows,  pointed  with  ilsh  teeth  or  stones,  stone  axes,  spears,  and  a  war  club  armed  with  sharp  stones  called 
a  maeana.  They  were  asimple  hearted,  peaceful,  contented  race,  "  all  of  one  language  and  all  friends,"  says  Colum- 
bus ;  "not  given  to  wandering,  naked,  and  satisfied  with  little,"  says  Peter  Martyr ;  "a  people  very  poor  in  all  things," 
says  Las  Casas. 

Yet  they  had  some  arts.  Statues  and  masks  in  wood  and  stone  were  found,  some  of  them  in  the  opinion  of  Bishop 
Las  Casas,  "very  skilfully  carved."  They  hammered  the  native  gold  into  ornaments,  and  their  rude  .sculi>tures  on 
the  face  of  the  rocks  are  still  visible  in  parts  of  Cuba  and  Haiti.  Their  boats  were  formed  of  single  trunks  of  trees 
often  of  large  size,  and  they  managed  them  adroitly;  their  houses  were  of  reeds  covered  with  palm  leaves,  and  usually 
accommodated  a  lai'ge  number  of  families  ;  and  in  their  holy  places,  they  set  up  rows  of  large  stones  like  the  ancient 
cromlechs,  one  of  which  is  still  preserved  in  Hayti,  and  is  known  as  la  cercada  de  lo8  Indios. 

29  "  Lucaj'os  o  por  mejordecir  Yucayos"' says  Las  Casas,  (flwi.  (?««.  lib.  ii,  cap.  44)  and  after  him  Herrera.  But  the  correction  which  was  based  apparently 
on  some  supposed  connection  of  the  word  with  yuca,  llie  Haitian  name  of  an  esculent  plant,  is  superfluous,  and  Las  Casas  himself  never  employs  it,  nor  a 
single  other  writer. 

30  Las  Casas.    HUl.  Gen.  tie  las  Indias,  lib.  iv.  cap.  48.  MSS.    Bees  were  native  to  Yucatan  long  before  the  discovery,  but  not  to  the  north  temperate  zone. 

31  "Varla  eulm  esse  idiomata  in  variis  Cubae  provlnclis  perpendenint."  (Pet.  Martyr,  Be  Rebus  Oceanicis,  v,  42).  Las  Casas  says  that  a  sailor  told  Columbus 
thathe  sawonelndlancacique  in  along  whitetunic  who  refused  to  speaii,  but  stalked  silently  away.  (FIist.de  las  Indias, Ub. I. cap. 95).  Martyr  says  there 
were  several.  Peschel  suggests  they  were  tall  white  iiaratngoes,  that  scared  the  adventurous  tar  out  of  his  wits.  (.Geschichte  dcs  Zeitalters  der  Entdeckungen,p. 
253).    At  any  rate  the  story  gives  no  foundation  at  all  for  Peter  Martyr's  philogical  opinion. 

33  Pet.  Martyr,  De  Ineulis  Ntiper  Innentis,  p.  335.  "Trala  consigo  Grlsalva  un  Indlo  per  lengua  de  los  que  de  aquella  tierra  hablan  llevado  consigo  a  ta  ysla  de 
Cuba  Francisco  Hernandez.  Las  Casas  i7i»<.  ffeii .  de  las  /iirfioa,  lib.  Ill.cap.  108,  MSS.  Sec  also  the  chaplain's  account  in  Terneaux  Compans,  ifeci^ii  de 
Pieces  rel.  a  la  Conquile  de  Mexique,  p.  56- 

33  Bernal  Bias  says  the  vicinity  of  cape  San  Antonio  was  Inhabited  by  the  "Ouauataneys  que  son  unos  Indias  como  salvages."  He  expressly  adds  that 
their  clothing  dlll'ered  from  thatof  the  Mayas,  and  that  the  Cuban  natives  with  him  could  not  understand  the  Maya  language.    Uistoria  VerdaSra,  cap.  II. 


16  THE    ARAAVACK    LANGUAGE   OF   GUIANA 

Pliysically  they  were  undersized,  less  muscular  than  the  Spaniards,  light  in  color,  with  thick  hair  and  scanty 
beards.  Their  foreheads  were  naturally  low  and  retreating,  and  they  artificially  flattened  the  skull  by  pressure  on 
the  forehead  or  the  occiput.'* 

Three  social  grades  seem  to  have  prevailed,  the  common  herd,  the  petty  chiefs  who  ruled  villages,  and  the  inde- 
pendent chiefs  who  governed  provinces.  Of  the  latter  there  were  in  Cuba  twenty-nine  ;  in  Haiti  five,  as  near  as 
can  be  now  ascertained.''  Some  of  those  in  Cuba  had  shortly  before  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards  moved  there  from 
Haiti,  and  at  the  conquest  one  of  the  principal  chiefs  of  Haiti  was  a  native  of  the  Lucayos.'^ 

The  fate  of  these  Indians  is  something  terrible  to  contemplate.  At  the  discovery  there  were  probably  150,000 
on  Cuba,  Haiti,  and  the  Bahamas.''  Those  on  the  latter  were  carried  as  slaves  to  Haiti  to  work  in  the  mines,  and  all 
of  the  Lucayos  exterminated  in  three  or  four  years  (1508-1512).'^  The  sufferings  of  the  Haitians  have  been  told  in  a 
graphic  manner  by  Las  Casas  in  an  oft-quoted  work.''  His  statements  have  frequently  been  condemned  as  grossly 
exaggerated,  but  the  official  documents  of  the  early  history  of  Cuba  prove  but  too  conclusively  that  the  worthy 
missionary  reports  correctly  what  terrible  cruelties  the  Spaniards  committed.  Cuba  was  conquered  in  1514,  and  was 
then  quite  densely  populated.  Fourteen  years  afterwards  we  find  the  Governor,  Gonzalo  de  Guzman,  complaining 
that  while  troops  of  hunters  were  formerly  traversing  the  island  constantly,  asking  no  other  pay  than  the  right  of 
keeping  as  .slaves  the  natives  whom  they  captured,  he  now  has  to  pay  patrolmen,  as  the  Indians  are  so  scarce.'"'  The 
next  year  (1539)  the  treasurer.  Lope  de  Hurtado,  writes  that  the  Indians  are  in  such  despair  that  they  are  hanging 
themselves  twenty  and  thirty  at  a  time."  In  1530  the  king  is  petitioned  to  relinquish  his  royalty  on  the  produce  of 
the  mines,  because  nearly  all  the  Indians  on  the  island  are  dead.*^  And  in  1533  the  licentiate,  Vadillo,  estimates 
the  total  number  of  Indians  on  the  island,  including  the  large  percentage  brought  from  the  mainland  by  the  slavers, 
at  only  4,500." 

As  a  specimen  of  what  the  treatment  of  the  Indians  was,  we  have  an  accusation  in  1533  against  Vasco  Porcallo, 
afterwards  one  of  the  companions  of  Hernando  de  Soto.  He  captured  several  Indians,  cut  off  their  genitals,  and 
forced  them  to  eat  them,  cramming  them  down  their  throats  when  they  could  not  swallow.  When  asked  for  his 
defence,  Porcallo  replied  that  he  did  it  to  prevent  his  own  Indians  from  committing  suicide,  as  he  had  already  lost 
two-thirds  of  his  slaves  in  that  way.     The  defence  was  apparently  deemed  valid,  for  he  was  released  !  ■'■' 

The  myths  and  traditions  of  the  Haitians  have  fortunately  been  preserved,  though  not  in  so  perfect  a  form  as 
might  be  wished.  When  Bartholomew  Columbus  left  Rome  for  the  Indies,  he  took  with  him  a  lay  brother  of  the 
order  of  the  Hermits  of  St.  Jerome,  Ramon  Pane  by  name,  a  Catalan  by  birth,  a  worthy  but  credulous  and  ignorant 

"  "  Presso  caplte,  fronte  lata"  (Nicolaus  Syllaclus,  De  Inmlls  naper  Invenlui.p.  86.  lieprlnt.  New  York,  1839.  This  Is  tho  extremely  rare  account  of  Colum- 
bus' second  voyage).  Six  not  very  perfect  skulls  were  obtained  In  1860,  by  Col.  F.  S.  Henekcn,  from  a  cavern  15  miles  south-west  from  Porto  Plata.  They  are  all 
more  or  less  distorted  In  a  dlscoldal  manner,  one  by  pressure  over  the  frontal  sinus,  reducing  the  calvarla  to  a  disk.  (J.  Barnard  Davis,  ThesauruB  Craniorum^ 
p.  236.  London,  1867.    Mr.  Davis  eiToneously  calls  them  Carib  skulls). 

^  The  provinces  of  Cuba  are  laid  down  on  the  Mapa  de  la  Isla  de  Cubaaeffun  la  dioUion  deloa  iVofuroIeff,  por  D.  Jose  Maria  de  la  Torre  y  de  la  Torre,  in  the 
Memoriasde  laSociedad  Patriotica  de  la  Habana,  1841.  See  also  Felipe  Poey,  Geografia  de  la  Tela  de  Oitba^  lEabana,  1853-  Apendice  eohre  la  Geograjia  Antigua, 
Las  Casas  gives  the  five  provinces  of  Hayti  by  the  names  of  their  chiefs,  Guarlnox,  Guacanagarl,  Behechlo,  Caoniibo  and  Higuey-  For  their  relative  posi- 
tion see  the  map  In  Charlevoix's  niatoire  deV Isle  San  Domingtu,  Paris,  1740,  and  In  Baumgarten's  Geachichte  vonAmerika,  B.  II. 

w  This  was  Caonabo.  Oviedo,  and  following  him  Charlevoix,  say  he  was  a  Carl  b,  but  L.is  CaStis,  who  having  11  ved  twenty  years  In  Haiti  immedlatelyafter  the 
discovery.  Is  Infinitely  the  best  authority,  says :  "Era  de  naclon  Lucayo,  natural  de  las  Islas  de  los  Lucayos,  que  se  pasd  de  ellas  aca."  (Hutoria  Apologetica^  cap. 
179,  MSS). 

n  I  put  the  figures  very  low.  Peter  Martyr,  whose  estimates  are  the  lowest  of  any  writer,  says  there  were  more  than  200,000  natives  on  Haiti  alone.  (De 
i2«6u«  Oceanicis,  p.  295.) 

M  More  than  40,000  were  brought  to  Haiti  to  en)oy  the  benefits  of  Christian  instruction,  says  Herrera,  with  what  might  pass  as  a  ghastly  sarcasm.  {HUtoria 
General  de  lae  Indiae,  Dec.  I,  lib.  VIII,  cap.  3). 

33  Breviestma  Rclacion  de  la  DeHruccion  de  las  Indias  Occidentales  por  lo8  CaBtellanoe,  Sevllla,  1552. 

*"  Ramon  de  de  la  Sagra,  Sietoria  de  la  Jala  de  Cuha^  Tom.  II,  p.  381. 

<i  Ibid,  p.  394. 

«  Ibid,  p.  396. 

«  Ibid,  p.  414. 

"  Ibid,  p.465.   These  references  toDe  la  Sagra's  work  arc  all  to  the  original  documents  in  hla  Appendix. 


IN   ITS   LINGUISTIC   AND   ETHNOLOGICAL   RELATIONS,  It 

man.*'  On  reaching  Haiti  brother  Pane  was  first  sent  among  the  natives  of  the  small  province  called  Macorix  de 
abajo,  whicli  had  a  language  peculiar  to  itself,  but  he  was  subsequently  transferred  to  the  province  of  Guarinoex  on 
the  southeastern  part  of  the  island  where  the  lengua  universal  prevailed.  He  remained  there  two  years,  and  at  the 
request  of  Columbus  collected  and  wrote  down  the  legends  and  beliefs  of  the  natives. 

He  is  not  a  model  authority.  In  the  first  place,  being  a  Catalan  he  did  not  write  Spanish  correctly  ;  lie  was  very 
imperfectly  acquainted  with  the  native  tongue  ;  he  wrote  hastily,  and  had  not  enough  paper  to  write  in  full ;  lie  is 
not  sure  that  he  commences  their  legends  at  the  right  end.  Moreover  his  manuscript  is  lost,  and  the  only  means  we 
have  of  knowing  anytliiug  about  it  is  by  a  very  incorrectly  printed  Italian  version,  printed  in  1571,  and  two  early 
synopses,  cue  in  Latin  in  the  Decades  of  Peter  Martyr,  the  other  in  Italian,  by  Messer  Zuane  de  Strozi  of  Ferrara, 
which  has  been  quite  recently  published  for  the  first  time.**  By  comparing  these  we  can  arrive  at  the  meaning  of 
Brother  Pane  with  considerable  accuracy. 

His  work  contains  fragments  of  two  distinct  cycles  of  legends,  the  one  describing  the  history  of  the  gods,  the 
other  the  history  of  the  human  race. 

Earliest  of  creatures  was  the  woman,  Atabeira  or  Ataves,  who  also  bore  the  other  names  Mamoua,  Guacarapita, 
liella,  and  Guiraaztfa.  Her  son  was  the  supreme  ruler  of  all  things,  and  chiefest  of  divinities.  His  names  were 
Yocatina,  Guamadnocon,  and  Tocahu-vaguaniao-vocoti .  He  had  a  brother  called  Guaca,  and  a  son  laiael.  The  latter 
rebelled  against  his  father,  and  was  exiled  for  four  months  and  then  killed.  Tlie  legend  goes  on  to  relate  that  his 
bones  were  placed  in  a  calabash  and  hung  up  in  his  father's  house.  Here  they  changed  into  fishes,  and  the  calabash 
filled  with  water.  One  day  four  brothers  passed  that  way,  who  had  all  been  born  at  one  time,  and  whose  mother, 
Itaba  tahuana,  had  died  in  bringing  them  into  the  world.  Seeing  the  calabash  filled  with  fish  the  oldest  of  the  four, 
Caracaracol,  the  Scabby,  lifted  it  down,  and  all  commenced  to  eat.  While  thus  occupied,  Yocauna  suddenly  made  his 
appeai-ance,  which  so  terrified  the  brothers  that  they  dropped  the  gourd  and  broke  it  into  pieces.  From  it  ran  all  the 
waters  of  the  world,  and  formed  the  oceans,  lakes,  and  rivers  as  they  now  are. 

At  this  time  there  were  men  but  no  women,  and  the  men  did  not  dare  to  venture  into  the  sunlight.  Once,  as 
they  were  out  in  the  rain,  they  perceived  four  creatures,  swift  as  eagles  and  slippery  as  eels.  The  men  called  to  their 
aid  Caracaracol  and  his  brothers,  who  caught  these  creatures  and  transformed  them  into  women.  In  time,  these 
became  the  mothers  of  mankind. 

The  earliest  natives  of  Haiti  came  under  the  leadership  of  the  hero-god,  Vaguoniona,  a  name  applied  by  Las 
Casas  to  Tocahu,  from  an  island  to  the  south  called  in  the  legend  Matininfi,  which  all  the  authors  identify,  I  know 
not  why,  with  Martinique.  They  landed  first  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Bahoboni  in  the  western  part  of  Haiti,  and 
there  erected  the  first  bouse,  called  Camoteia.     This  was  ever  after  preserved  and  regarded  with  respectful  veneration. 

Such,  in  brief,  were  their  national  myths.  Conspicuously  marked  in  them  we  note  the  sacred  number  four,  the 
four  brothers  typifying  the  cardinal  points,  whose  mother,  the  Dawn,  dies  in  giving  them  birth,  just  as  in  the  Algonkin 
myths.  These  brothers  aid  the  men  in  their  struggles  for  life,  and  bring  to  them  the  four  women,  the  rain-bringing 
winds.  Here,  too,  the  first  of  existences  is  the  woman,  whose  son  is  at  once  highest  of  divinities  and  the  guide  and  in- 
structor of  their  nation .  These  peculiarities  I  have  elsewhere  shown  to  be  general  throughout  the  religions  of  America.*' 

The  myth  of  the  thunder  storm  also  appears  among  them  in  its  triplicate  nature  so  common  to  the  American 
mind.  God  of  the  storm  was  Guabancex,  whose  statue  was  made  of  stones.  When  angry  he  sent  before  him  as<inessen- 
ger,  Guatauva,  to  gather  the  winds,  and  accompanied  by  Coatrischie,  who  collected  the  rain-clouds  in  the  valleys  of  the 
mountains,  he  swept  down  upon  the  plain,  surrounded  by  the  awful  paraphernalia  of  the  thunder  storm.*' 

«  Las  Casas  knew  Pane  personally,  and  given  his  name  correctly  (not  Roman,  as  all  the  printed  authorities  have  It).  He  described  him  as  "  hombre  simple 
y  de  buena  Intenclon;"  "fuese  Catalan  de  nacion  y  no  habla  del  todo  blen  uuestra  lengua  Castellana."  Ramon  came  to  Haiti  four  or  five  years  before  Las  Casas, 
and  the  latter  speaks  of  him  in  a  disparaging  tone.  "  Este  Fray  Ramon  escudrino  lo  que  pudo,  segun  lo  que  alcanzo  de  las  lenguas  que  fueron  ires,  las  que 
habla  en  esta  ysla:  pero  no  supo  sino  la  una  de  una  chlca  provincia,  que  arrlba  d^imos  llamarse  Macarla  de  abajo,  y  aquella  no  perfectamente.  {HUtoria 
Apologetica,  M^S.  cap.  120,  see  also  cap.  162).  This  statsmint  Is  not  quite  true,  as  according  to  Las  Casas' own  admission  Pane  dwelt  two  years  In  the  province 
of  Guarinoex,  where  the  lengua  unioersat  was  spoken,  and  thnre  collected  these  traditions. 

48  Pane's  account  was  first  published  in  the  nutorie  del  Frcnando  dloinfyo,  Venetla.  1571,  from  which  it  has  recently  been  translated  and  published  with 
notes  by  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Paris.  1S64.    The  version  of  Zuane  de  Strozl  is  in  the  Appendix  to  Harrisse's  Bibliotheca  PHmordia  Americana,  p.  474. 

"  The  myths  0/ the  New  World,  (New  York,  1868). 

«  See  the  work  last  quoted,  p.  156,  for  a  number  of  similar  myths  of  the  trinity  of  the  storm. 


18  THE    ARAWACK   LANGUAGE   OF    GUIANA,    ETC. 

Let  us  place  side  by  side  with  these  ancient  myths  the  national  legend  of  the  Arawacks."  They  tell  of  a  supreme 
spiritual  being  Yauwahu  or  Yauhahu.  Pain  and  sickness  are  the  invisible  shafts  he  shoots  at  men,  yauJiahu  simaira 
the  arrows  of  Yauhahu,  and  he  it  is  whom  the  priests  invoke  in  their  incantations.  Once  upon  a  time,  men  lived 
without  any  means  to  propitiate  this  unseen  divinity  ;  they  knew  not  how  to  ward  off  his  anger  or  conciliate  him. 
At  that  time  the  Arawacks  did  not  live  in  Guiana,  but  in  an  island  to  the  north.  One  day  a  man  named  Arawanili 
walked  by  the  waters  grieving  over  the  ignorance  and  suffering  of  his  nation.  Suddenly  the  spirit  of  the  waters,  the 
woman  Orehu,  rose  from  the  waves  and  addressed  him.  She  taught  him  the  mysteries  of  semeci,  the  sorcery  which 
pleases  and  controls  Yauhahu,  and  presented  him  with  the  maraka,  the  holy  calabash  containing  white  pebbles  which 
they  rattle  during  their  exorcisms,  and  the  sound  of  which  summons  the  beings  of  the  unseen  world.  Arawanili 
ftiithfully  iustnicted  his  people  in  all  that  Orehu  had  said,  and  tluis  i-escued  them  from  their  wretchedness.  When 
after  a  life  of  wisdom  and  good  deeds  the  hour  of  his  departure  came,  he  "  did  not  die,  but  went  up." 

Orehu  accompanied  the  Ai-awacks  when  they  moved  to  the  main,  and  still  dwells  in  a  treeless,  desolate  spot,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Pomeroon.  The  negroes  of  the  colony  have  learned  of  her,  and  call  her  in  their  broken  English,  the 
"  watra-mamma,"  the  water-mother. 

The  proper  names  which  occur  in  these  myths,  date  back  to  the  earliest  existence  of  the  Arawacks  as  an  independ- 
ent tribe,  and  are  not  readily  analyzed  by  the  language  as  it  now  exists.  The  Haitian  Yocauna  seems  indeed  identical 
with  the  modern  Yauhahu.  Atabes  or  Atabcira  is  probably  from  itabo,  lake,  lagoon,  and  era,  water,  (the  latter  only 
in  composition,  as /i«/v!fr«,  mountain,  em,  water,  mountain-water,  a  spring,  a  source),  and  in  some  of  her  actions 
corresponds  with  Orehu.  Caracaracol  is  translated  by  Brother  Pane,  as  "  the  Scabby"  or  the  one  having  ulcers,  and 
in  this  respect  the  myth  presents  a  curious  analogy  with  many  others  in  America.  In  modern  Arawack  karrikala  is 
a  form,  in  the  third  person  singular,  from  karriii,  to  be  sick,  to  be  pregnant.  Arawanili,  which  one  might  be  tempted 
to  suppose  gave  the  name  Arawack  to  the  tribe,  did  not  all  writers  derive  this  differently,  may  be  a  form  of  awawa, 
father.     In  the  old  language,  the  termination  el,  is  said  to  have  meant  son. 

Of  the  two  remaining  languages  said  to  have  been  spoken  in  the  small  provinces  of  Macorix  de  arriba  and  Macorix 
de  abajo,  in  Hayti,  we  have  no  certain  knowledge. ^o  Las  Casas  gives  one  word  from  tlie  former.  It  is  bazca,  no,  not. 
I  cannot  identify  it.  There  is  reason,  however,  to  suppose  one  of  them  was  the  Tupi  or  "lengua  geral,"  of  Brazil. 
Pane  gives  at  least  two  words  which  are  pure  Tupi,  and  not  Arawack.  They  are  the  names  of  two  hideous  idols  sup- 
posed to  be  inimical  to  men.  The  one  was  Bugi,  in  Tupi,  ugly,  the  other  Aiba,  in  Tupi,  lad.  It  is  noteworthy,  also, 
that  Pigafetta,  who  accompanied  Magellan  on  his  voyage  around  the  world,  gives  a  number  of  words,  ostensibly  in 
the  language  of  the  natives  of  Rio  Janeiro,  where  the  Tupi  was  spoken,  which  are  identical  with  those  of  Haiti,  as 
cacich,  chief,  boi,  house,  hamao,  bed,  canoe,  boat.  But  Pigafetta  acknowledges  that  he  obtained  these  words  not  from 
the  natives  themselves,  but  from  the  pilot  Juan  Carvalhos,  who  had  been  for  years  sailing  over  the  West  Indian  seas, 
and  had  no  doubt  learned  these  words  in  the  Antilles.^' 

The  remaining  idiom  may  be  supposed  to  have  been  Carib,  although  we  have  actually  no  evidence  that  the  Caribs 
had  gained  a  permanent  foothold  on  any  of  the  Great  Antilles  at  the  period  of  the  discovery,  some  careless  assertions 
of  the  old  authors  to  the  contrary,  notwithstanding. 

The  investigation  which  I  here  close,  shows  that  man  in  his  migrations  on  the  Western  Continent  followed  the 
lead  of  organic  nature  around  him.  For  it  is  well  known  that  the  flora  and  fauna  of  the  Antilles  are  South  American 
in  character,  and  also,  that  the  geological  structure  of  the  archipelago  connects  it  with  the  southern  mainland.  So  also 
its  earliest  known  human  inhabitants  were  descended  from  an  ancestry  whoso  homes  were  in  the  far  south,  and  who  by 
slow  degrees  moved  from  river  to  river,  island  to  island,  until  they  came  within  a  few  miles  of  the  northern  continent. 

**  I  take  these  as  they  are  related  Jn  Bretts,  Indian  Tribes  of  Guiana,  Part  li.chap.  x. 

w  The  most  trustworthy  author  is  Las  Casas.  As  his  worlts  are  still  in  manuscript,  I  give  his  words.  "Treslenguas  habia  en  esta  ysla  distlntasque  la  una 
a  la  otra  no  se  entendla.  La  una  era  de  la  gente  que  llamabamos  Macorix  de  abaJo  y  la  otra  de  los  vecinos  del  Macorix  de  arriba.  La  otra  lengua  fue  ia  univer- 
sal de  todala  tierra,  y  esta  era  mas  elegante  y  mas  copiosa  de  vocables,  y  mas  dulce  al  sonido.  En  esto  la  de  Xaragua  en  todo  llevaba  ventaja,  y  era  mul  mas 
prima."  {Hiatona  Apologeiica,  aaii.  197).  "  Es  aqui  de  saber  que  un  gran  pedajo  de  esta  costa  (that  of  the  northern  part  of  Haiti),  bten  mas  de  veintey  cinco 
o  treinta  leguas  y  quince  buenasy  aun  veintede  ancho  hasta  las  sierras  que  haren  desta  parte  del  norte  la  gran  Vega  inclusive,  era  poblado  de  una  gente  que 
se  llamaron  Mazoriges,  y  otraa  Ciguayos,  y  tenian  diversas  lenguas  de  la  universal  de  todas  las  islas."  (ITistoria  General,  lib.  I,  cap.  77).  "  Llamaban  Ciguayos 
porque  trayan  todoslos  cabellosmul  luengos  como  en  Nueva  Castllla  lasmujeres,"  (id.  cap,  77).  The  cacique  of  the  Ciguayos  was  named  Mayomanex  or  Ma- 
yobanex,(id.  lib.  I,  cap.  120).    They  went  almost  naked,  and  had  no  arms,  "  eran  Oaillnas  almenos  para  con  los  uflos,  como  no  tuvlesen  armas,"  {id.  cap.  120.) 

"  Pigafetta,  Beitc  urn  die  Welt,  so.  21, 26, 247,  (Gotha,  1802 ;  a  translation  of  the  Italian  original  in  the  library  at  Milan)- 


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